Annelieke Duker earns PhD for research on farmer-led irrigation

My PhD research is about understanding the diversity of small holder farmers, and how they adapt to changing circumstances over time. I did research in Kenya and Zimbabwe, and in both study areas, farmers use water from so-called sand rivers, or dry river beds, for irrigation. In the dry season, sand rivers appear dry on the surface, but they actually store substantial amounts of water underground. Because the water stored in these river beds is near the surface and replenished after each flood, these rivers provide opportunities for irrigation development that require only relatively small investments.

I studied how smallholder farmers who make their own investments in irrigated farming without depending on governments or non-governmental organizations adapt to challenges, and how they can benefit from opportunities. I analysed what motivates them and how they adopt different farming strategies over time. I also looked at how their decisions about their farming are related to their other sources of income. My findings show that the challenges, needs and aspirations of farmers are very diverse and changeable. Farmers frequently adjust their strategies, pause or stop farming: their systems are flexible and adaptive. Their autonomy in investing and decision-making was found to be a key feature to enable the use of sand rivers for irrigation.

I found the start of my PhD journey the most challenging. I was free to choose my own topic of interest, which was very exciting, but also challenging as it was difficult to develop a clear scope. I had been out of academia for a while, so it took some time to find an exciting niche to explore. Moreover, as I conducted my PhD studies part time, it was crucial to embed my research in other research projects. I am happy to have found such a motivating and facilitating group of people to collaborate with.

The future prospects in terms of food and livelihood security in arid lands in Africa are not good. Existing socioeconomic and political challenges are exacerbated by climate change and lingering conflicts. I hope my research contributes to developing stronger policies and interventions to support smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa who are facing these extreme conditions. In particular, I hope my research contributes to facilitating resource-poor households who wish to engage in developing irrigated farming but lack the means to do so. Also, I wish to trigger discussions on how such support mechanisms could look like, and moreover, how they could accommodate for the diverse needs of rural households.

I want to continue working in academia. For the next few years, I wish to further work on food security and smallholder irrigation issues. I want to focus in particular on farmer-led irrigation and rural development, as I see many areas of high interest and relevance. For example, I want to study and advise on the development of support mechanisms that include poor households, but I also want to look at how to address negative impacts that can arise from these forms of irrigation development. I aim to further adopt these topics also in IHE Delft’s educational programmes. I may also want to explore how I could contribute to communicating scientific results to a wider audience, for example by collaborating with media platforms.

If I would advise myself on my first day as a PhD student, I would say that though it is important to learn and absorb advise from others, choose your own path and be true to your own style and character. Also, don’t take the thoughts during your sleep too seriously!

Shifting sands: Diversity and dynamics of farmer-led irrigation along sand rivers in Kenya and Zimbabwe

This dissertation presents an analysis of farmer-led irrigation (FLI) along sand rivers in dryland areas of Kenya and Zimbabwe. Both study areas are characterised by a relative abundance of water and land resources, but contrast in socio-economic context. This study evaluates the operations, drivers, challenges and coping mechanisms of smallholder irrigators over time. Through surveys, in-depth interviews and mapping of farm plots, this study reveals how irrigation dynamics manifest in terms of time and space. In Zimbabwe, rural households mostly engage in irrigated farming from sand rivers as a result of multiple crises (climatic, political and economic). In Kenya, primarily market-oriented farmers venture in dynamic partnerships with capital providers on leased lands. They often change farming partnerships and plots, both out of necessity and opportunity. A longitudinal study shows how farmers frequently pause, stop or alter irrigation strategies by choice or force, confirming flexibility and autonomy as distinctive features of FLI. These findings imply that emerging irrigation policies aiming to catalyse FLI in sub-Saharan Africa need to appraise diverse farmer livelihoods. Policies that adopt FLI as a cure for past fallacies, with uncompromising assumptions of market-orientation and technology advancements, may stifle the autonomous, diverse and dynamic character of FLI.